Motivation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Motivation - Essay Example Although different motivational theories focus on improving employee performance, their approaches differ substantially. As a result, all the models have their unique similarities and differences. This essay focuses on the similarities and differences between Maslow's theory, Herzberg's theory and the Equity theory as theories that organizations use to motivate their employees. All motivational theories focus on improving employee performance in the job (Hoffmann, 2007). As the developers of these theories pointed out, every human resource department should aim at improving the employee satisfaction in order to improve their level of output. Although they propose on different approaches of achieving employee satisfaction, the reality is that their main goal is improving organizational performance through specific ways. They emphasise on different factors that lead to employee satisfaction. As these theories point out, employee satisfaction is the most essential factor in improving em ployee satisfaction in their work places. Increase in employee satisfaction increases their level output to a certain level. Actually, most of the theories insist on the need for the organization treating an employee as an asset. The models provide the criteria for increasing employees’ job satisfaction. ... Herzberg’s theory focuses on motivation hygiene. According to the theory, there are factors that in the workplace that cause employee satisfaction. Whenever an organization puts into consideration these factors and ensures that their full satisfaction, the result is increased employee satisfaction, which generally translates into highly motivated employees. Equity theory points out that the manner in which an organization distributes its resources largely determines the level of satisfaction of the employees. Fair distribution of resources on the organization leads to increased levels of job satisfaction while unfair resource distribution leads to low motivational levels. Therefore, a major similarity between the three models us their ultimate goals that focus on the employee satisfaction and subsequently increasing their levels of satisfaction. Despite their similarities however, the organizations these theories have a number of differences. One of these differences is the ap proaches proposed by every theory in motivating employees. While some of the theories insist on the organization as the main source of motivation, others insist on the employee as the main reason for employee satisfaction. Although some of the motivational theories focus on the growth of the employee as an individual, others focus on general employees in the organization (Hoffmann, 2007). What such theories do not differentiate well is that different motivational factors work different to different employees. Nonetheless, differences in the departments and the hierarchy that employees hold in an organization influence how different motivational factors affect their levels

New Media Technologies And News Production Essay

New Media Technologies And News Production - Essay Example On the other hand, families saw the need of sitting and watching the television after a day’s work rather than reading newspapers to acquire information. Additionally, the advancement in to the World Wide Web era gave birth to personalized consumption of information since it a was faster and more detailed way of news reporting. News production and the internet Moreover, the information transmission through the internet led to great cultural diversifications in the way of consuming news. The internet is a platform of free culture in that the information provided costs less or is free. Sequentially, the newspapers in the developed nations are unable to compete with the internet in terms of revenue accumulation. Undoubtedly, journalists who find themselves on the receiving end of losing their jobs because of the financial strain in the world today have implemented the use of blogging sites on the internet (Schubert, 2011:5). These blogging sites provide an avenue for the airing o f their views through cheap and reliable means (Stuart 2003:36). They do not find themselves answerable to any one except authorities of their lands of origin. Therefore, the internet has offered a way of bridging the professional gap from that of being unemployed to that of independence for practicing journalists across the globe. On the contrary, citizens have also had their fair contribution in reporting, as the internet offers a platform for posting photographs and amateur video footage on happening events. This is what citizen journalism entails (Greer & McLaughlin, 2010:1045).Once these pictures find their way to the internet, they give room for research where the researching on more facts surrounding the developing story may get to the public domain... This essay stresses that the media has a way of portraying protests and demonstrations by the public in a violent and the non-attractive way. Usually, they portray the demonstrators as those who have high traits of anarchy. This depicts the influence of the media in explaining the actual state happening events. However, governments have emphasized the need for positive reporting rather than negative reporting through the showing of disturbing images. Ideally, negative reporting may affect a country’s economy in that it may bring down a country’s attractiveness to potential investors. Modern day media forms should act as public relations features rather than weapons of ruining public image. Therefore, the media has a role to play in restoring public trust in institutions like the police force that have had the repute of violence and brutality to the public. This paper makes a conclusion that The transformed media has a critical place in the present society because many use it as a matter of the need to feel informed. In this regard, responsible journalism should be the foundation for any coverage of information intending to reach the public domain. Ideally, the media is a tremendously powerful tool that which can influence the society either negatively or positively. Subsequently, the transformed media should ensure that it is impartial and steers the society towards the right direction. Finally, the transformed media forms have defined the standards of living for many of the urban citizens since the reception and production of news is immense quality and class.

Ryanair Business Strategy: Internal and External Analysis

Ryanair Business Strategy: Internal and External Analysis Ryanair:  Case Analysis Report Introduction Ryanair, established in 1985, is considered the main instigators of the â€Å"low cost â€Å" airline carriers, creating a new niche in a market previously dominated by former national airlines such as BA. The company has grown to a position where in 2005 it has 15 bases and 150 aircraft operating throughout Europe, carrying thirty million passengers (see figure 1), with a five year target to increase this to seventy million (Ryanair 2007). This position has been achieved by creating a â€Å"no-frills† approach on price (Pettigrew et al 2002), which gave it a competitive advantage over the established airlines (Porter 2004, p.207 and Kotler et al 2004, p.407), although attempts to extend this to include charging for ice used in in-flight drinks (Creaton 2004, p.169) was rescinded after customer complaints. The objective of the business is to become Europe’s leading â€Å"low-cost† airline and first for customer service, the latter position which was first reached in 2002 according to independent sources (see appendix A, figure 3). Similarly, the company also seeks to maintain value growth for shareholders. External Analysis Liberalisation of the airline industry in the 1970’s opened up the industry to new entrants and a new business model. Being one of the â€Å"first movers† in this new sector (Faulkner and Campbell 2006) Ryanair has taken advantage of the growth opportunities offered by creating a â€Å"low Cost† model based on the successful Southwest Airline (2007) strategy. This move has been partially responsible for increase in passenger numbers using UK airports in the last three decades (see table 1), with expectations of a threefold increase by 2030. Table 1 Airline passengers Year Passengers (m) 1980 50 1990 90 2000 180 With former eastern bloc countries converting from communistic to democratic political structures this growth is set to continue, providing the business with further opportunities (see appendix A, figure 4). Many of these former Baltic States have now joined the EU, which also provides Ryanair with the opportunity of expanding its destination network. However, the industry growth has also seen new competitors enter this niche market, including EasyJet, BMI, Virgin express and Aer Lingus. To maintain its competitive advantage the two major players have sought to consolidate their position by strategic acquisitions. In this area Ryanair, with its successful acquisition and integration of the â€Å"Buzz† lo-cost carrier, has been more successful that EasyJet’s experience when acquiring â€Å"Go.† Although the major airlines such as BA have responded to threats from Ryanair, to date these have not proved successful. The creation of this niche industry sector has also led to significant changes in the consumer’s perception (OConnell, J., and G. Williams 2005). Demands for cheaper fares has increased as prices have fallen, and the consumer perception and lifestyle has changed with regard to types of holidays has expanded rapidly, with weekend breaks and formerly unknown destinations increasing in popularity. Ryanair has also made full use of the advances in technology and digital processes within its â€Å"low-cost† business model. It was one of the first â€Å"low-cost† airlines to recognise the changes in the consumer buying habits resulting from these technological advances, using this diffusion to improve its services, encourage further consumer change and continue cost reduction advantages (Johnson et al 2007, p.481). Evidence of this can be found in the business move to paperless tickets, with more bookings being made through the Internet and, more recently, a move towards automated booking–in procedures at the airport, reducing the need for expansion of human resources to meet demand increase. At the same time, this technology use also helps Ryanair to maintain one of its key corporate objectives, which is to return success and value to the shareholders. There are two other external factors that impact upon the business and affect the determination of strategy. The first is environmental issues., which includes the concerns expressed by consumers and governments relating to the impact that air travel growth has upon the local communities and infrastructure and the second is the natural environment, where businesses are now required to consider the impact that their operations have upon issues such as climate change. The second issue is in the increase of legislation, particularly from the EU. In this respect Ryanair operations have to comply with regulations in terms of fair competition, which affects mergers and acquisitions and unfair practices, and targets set by the EU in relation to emission reductions required to address climate change.[PL1] Internal Analysis As Lynch (2006) and Faulkner and Campbell (2005) stated within their respective researches, for organisation’s such as Ryanair, who have targeted their strategy at a â€Å"low-price† product, it is imperative that, to maintain competitive advantage, who submitted that to achieve and maintain low price in the market place, the business itself had to be structured in a way that provided a limited cost base throughout all aspects of the business, in order to retain a profitable result. Porter (2004) suggests that this cost reduction process has to be communicated throughout the value chain (see appendix B, figure 6). Michael O’Leary, and the Ryanair management team have strived to achieve this position through a number of measures. Use of resources Ryanair makes good use of its resources. For example, all of the aircraft are of one design, the Boeing 737-800 series. This has several positives. Firstly, the company receives a discount from Boeing. Secondly, It reduces costs in terms of maintenance and training. In the latter case, unlike EasyJet, which has to train pilot and cabin crew to operate on a number of different aircraft designs, Ryanair’s staff only have to familiarise themselves with the one. Similarly, the turnaround of aircraft at destinations is quick and efficient, thus reducing unit cost. Human resources Despite the number of routes operated and the logistical problems of running a business of the magnitude of Ryanair, the company operates with a minimalist attitude towards head office, admin, aircraft and maintenance crews and administration staff. At the end of the 2005 financial year the business employed around 2,800 personnel, a figure which has changed very little over a five-year period. All of the Ryanair employees are expected to multitask. For example, cabin crew are required to clean cabins and remove rubbish between flights. Technology As mentioned earlier, Ryanair computerises as many services as possible. With Internet booking, paperless tickets, automated booking-in processes and many other parts of the operations being streamlined in this manner, this ensures that production and other costs remain low. Destinations Another imp0ortant aspect of the Ryanair cost reduction strategy is the concentration of its destinations into secondary rather than primary airports. Landing fees and other charges at these airports is substantially lower than the main airports and, even with the â€Å"sweetners† paid by Ryanair, the unit costs per passenger of flight into these destinations remains cheaper. Travel format Finally, the product itself has been simplified. There is only one class on a Ryanair flight and no pre-booking of seats. Furthermore, virtually everything but the seat costs. This includes drinks, meals and the other retail products available on board, with even free levels of baggage is limited. The success of this strategy can be evidenced when comparing the met profit margin of Ryanair with other carriers. The following data, taken from the various organisation’s websites and financial statements show the differnce (see table 2 below): Table 2 Net profit percentages Company Percentage Ryanair 17.81% EasyJet 7.98% British Airways 7.28% Diagnosis of current challenges However, like all businesses, Ryanair is not immune from challenges as it moves into the future. From the analysis of the business operations it is apparent that these challenges and threats will come from five main areas (appendix A, figure 4). Competition As mentioned earlier, with the emerging democracies within Europe, together with the regional and global harmonisation of competition rules, Ryanair is likely to find increased competition developing from these areas within the next few years to a decade. With the increased market place and, as can be seen from the share of the market that low cost airlines have (see figure 2), there is ample scope for new competition. The discussions about the â€Å"open skies† agreement between the EU and US (Milmo and Gow 2007), if these come to fruition, will also pose a threat as it creates a potential for US airlines to enter the industry sector. These actions could adversely affect the business continued financial success. Consolidation and growth There has already been some consolidation within the sector. It is likely that this will continue for the foreseeable future, and this could pose a threat to Ryanair’s dominant position. Furthermore, the corporations own growth pattern could impact negatively upon profitability. Despite growth attracting economies of scale, it can involve additional costs that threaten efficiency (Creaton 2004, p.250). Political intervention There are three main aspects of political intervention that are like to affect Ryanair in respect of its future development within Europe. The first of these relates to the EU’s competition laws, which is an area where Ryanair has come into conflict with the commissioners in terms of payments being made to secondary airports and other similar issues (BBC News 2004). The second is the threat by the EU to reduce or eliminate the subsidies given to the sector, worth an estimated  £6 billion annually (Bized 2004). This includes report, this VAT, Landing and Fuel tax benefits. The removal of these benefits will have a significant impact upon profitability. The third issue is the EU intention to force budget airlines to pay compensation for cancellations, which is not done at present. Environmental issues One of the major issues is the environment. Following the EU adoption of the IPCC[1] report recommendations, focus has been concentrated upon setting emissions targets for airline industry player, with stringent targets being set (see table 3). Future strategic options All researches promote the need for corporations to ensure corporate strategy addresses future challenges (Lynch (2006) and Faulkner and Campbell (2006)). In Ryanair’s case, it is suggested there are three strategic options that could be adopted (see appendix C, figure 7). Low price – low added value The aim of this strategy is to achieve the lowest price by a process of continually reducing the additional elements that attach to the service. For example, in terms of the budget airlines, from the consumers’ viewpoint this has meant reducing the facilities offered in-flight, such as changes to the quality of seating, increasing the seating capacity on the aircraft and reducing choice of services that involve human resources, such as hot meals, snacks and drinks. For the business is requires a continual drive to continue cost reduction throughout the value chain. Low price The intention of the low price strategy per se it to achieve reduction in the cost of fares, whilst retaining the consumers’ perception of the value of the product. To implement this strategy means that the business will need to seek cost reductions in areas other than those that directly impact upon the quality of the in-=flight service provided. This could be achieved by the further use of technology to automate in additional areas of the operational processes. Focused differentiation A strategy if focused differentiation is intended to set the business product apart from that of its competitors. Price can be used in the differentiation process, but in this case it needs to be inclusive with other elements that make the product unique. Evaluation of strategic options Following an evaluation of these strategic options, using the criteria recommended by Rumselt (see appendix D, figure 8), the following is an outline of the results that this produced. Option 1 – Low price – love value added This strategic option is consistence with the policy that Ryanair has followed in the past and is in accord with the previous intentions of the business strategy, which has been to reduce price at the cost of services, in other words achieving a â€Å"no frills† situation. However, it would seem that Ryanair would find it difficult to further reduce the level of service provided to its customers and it is unlikely that this approach would secure its market position. Option 2 – Low price Low price, as with option one, is in line with the business existing strategy. However, from the analysis of the internal situation at Ryanair, it would seem that there are limited options in terms of reducing existing resources, particularly if the business wishes to maintained a sustained growth programme and market share. Furthermore, it is not in accord with external trends, which indicates that consumers are becoming more discerning and the political arena more concerned with the consumers’ rights and environmental costs. Option 3 – Focused differentiation Focused differential, which could still include low price, would also be consistent with the Ryanair strategy. The differential of â€Å"low price, no frills† has been the core differential upon which the business has promoted itself previously. However, with other competitors entering the market place, that differential needs to be extended to other areas. In summary therefore, it is felt that the focused differentiation option would be most appropriate for the business future and will assist it to retain and improve its competitive advantage. Overview of selected strategy The core elements of the proposed â€Å"focused differentiation† strategy being proposed will be threefold. Free flights An aggressive strategy aimed at achieving free flights to be pursued. This can be achieved by seeking third party turnover to replace the ticket cost. For example, the business could introduce sponsoring, where travel and venue destinations, such as holiday locations, theme parks and local tourist boards pay for flights. Similarly, in-flight facilities could be introduced, such as Internet shopping, gambling and pay to view telephone. Furthermore, other services such as car rental and insurances could be used to cover the lost ticket revenue. Consolidation The business should be looking to make acquisitions, particularly with organisations within the Eastern European countries that have recently joined the EU. This enables the business to achieve market growth and maintain its dominant position. It also reduces the future competition. Aircraft fleet Fleet replacement is an area that Ryanair has concentrated upon in the past. In the future, in addition to discounts, this should be linked to conditions that ensure the fleet includes the latest environmentally friendly specifications, with aircraft being regularly upgraded as part of the purchase options. Implementation plan To enable the selected strategy to be implemented, several courses of action need to be undertaken. Short term Moves towards a â€Å"free-flight† position can be commenced within the immediate future, with the management and marketing departments of Ryanair discussing this concept with potential sponsor from the commercial leisure world, as well as tourism boards within the region and in specific destinations. Medium Term In the medium term two actions required for the strategy can be undertaken. The first of these is the gradual refits that will be required to aircraft to include the various new technological facilities that have been recommended. The second action would be to assess the potential market players to ascertain which, if any, would provide the business with a strategic fit for expansion of its market reach within the region. Long term Contracts with Boeing need to be re-negotiated to ensure that environment related conditions are included as an inherent part of the purchase process for replacement aircraft. Conclusion There is no doubt that Ryanair faces a number of key challenges in the future. To ensure that the business can successfully deal with the changes these challenges present, it is important that the future strategy is sufficiently robust to be able ensure that the business retains its competitive advantage and profitability levels. The aggressive strategies recommended within this analysis study are designed to achieve this objective. The â€Å"Free-flight† with added services, albeit being paid for, will maintain the unique and differentiated service that the Ryanair brand has become known for. Bibliography BBC News (2004). Ryanair faces new payment probe. Retrieved 17 May 2007 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3458423.stm Bized (2004). Low Flying Fares: An End to Cheap, No Frills? Retrieved 27 July 2007 from http://www.bized.co.uk/current/leisure/2003_4/010304.htm Brassington Frances and Pettitt, Stephen (2006). Principles of Marketing, 4th edition, Pearson Education Ltd. London, UK Channel 4 News (2007). If you care about the environment, you should fly Easyjet. Really? Retrieved 16 May 2007 from http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/society/environment/factcheck+how+green+is+easyjet/509642 Creaton, Siobhan (2004). Ryanair: How a Small Irish Airline Conquered Europe. Aurum Press Ltd. London, UK. De Groote, P.D (2005). The Success Story of European Low-Cost Carriers in a Changing Airworld. GaWC Research Bulletin 174. Retrieved 27 July 2007 from http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/rb/rb174.html Doganis, Rigas (2000). The Airline Business in the 21st Century. Routledge. London, UK. Faulkner, David and Campbell, Andrew (2006). The Oxford Book of Strategy: A Strategy Overview and Competitive Strategy. New ed. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK. Haslam, Chris and Ungoed-Thomas, Jon (2007). Ryanair denies baggage ‘scam’. The Times. London, UK. Johnson, Gerry., Scholes, Kevan and Whittington, Richard (2007). Exploring Corporate Strategy. FT Prentice Hall, Harlow, UK. Kotler, Philip. Wong, Veronica., Saunders John A and Armstrong, Gary (2004). Principles of Marketing, 4th European edition, Pearson Education Ltd. London, UK. OConnell, J., and G. Williams (2005). Passengers Perceptions of Low Cost Airlines and Full Service Carriers. Journal of Air Transport Management, 11: 259-272. Porter, Michael E (2004). Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors. The Free Press. New ed. The Free Press. New York, US. Press association (2007). Budget airline offers low cost New York flights. Retrieved 17 May 2007 from http://www.which.co.uk/reports_and_campaigns/travel_and_leisure/reports/holiday_advice/Flights/zoom_flights_news_article_557_112479.jsp Report (2007). The Environmental Effects of Civil Aircraft in Flight. Royal Commission of Environmental Pollution. Retrieved 29 July 2007 from http://www.rcep.org.uk/avreport.htm Ryanair (2007). About us. Retrieved 14 May 2007 from http://www.ryanair.com Southwest Airlines (2007). About SWA. Retrieved 28 July 2007 from http://www.southwest.com/about_swa/airborne.html Stragler, Joos (1999). Current issues arising with airline alliances. Retrieved 17 May 2007 from http://ec.europa.eu/comm/competition/speeches/text/sp1999678_en.html Appendix A – external environment Figure 4 Pestel analysis Political Airline liberalisation Extension of democracy in EU Open skies policy Economic Internal financial performance Disposable income Abolishing of international tariffs Competition Acquisition Social Consumer attitudes Brand image Lifestyle and travel changes Technological Automatic booking in systems Online activity Change in consumer buying habits Environment Investor added value EU and international environment concerns Legal issues European legislation Environment regulations Competition rules Figure 5 Opportunities and Threats Opportunities Threats Growth of network Increased competition Growth of passenger numbers Industry consolidation Maintenance of cost reductions Political intervention Continuing price reductions (free?) Environmental issues Expand cooperation between â€Å"Low cost† carriers Further acquisitions Appendix B – Internal environment Figure 6 Value Chain Source: Porter (2004) Appendix C – strategic options Figure 7 The strategy clock Source: www.marketing teacher.com Appendix D – evaluation criteria Figure 8 Rumelts evaluation criteria Consistency Are the external strategies consistent with (supported by) the various internal aspects of the organization? You must examine all the various functional and internal management strategies employed by the organization and compare them with the external business strategy. Consonance Are the strategies in agreement with the various external trends (and sets of trends) in the environment? To answer this questions, you need to look at all the major trends that impact the selected strategy both positively and negatively. Feasibility Is the strategy reasonable in terms of the organizations resources? Money and capital Management, professional, and technical resources Time span Advantage Does the strategy create and/or maintain a competitive advantage? Resources Skills Position Source: Johnson et al (2007, p.593) 1 Footnotes [1] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [PL1]1

Copland: 1900 through 1942 and Copland: Since 1943 :: Aaron Copland Book Report

Copland: 1900 through 1942 and Copland: Since 1943   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In their books: Copland: 1900 through 1942 and Copland: Since 1943, Aaron Copland and Vivian Perlis give a detailed account of the life of one of America’s most influential composers. The books are arranged similarly to the Shostakovich biography that our class reviewed earlier this semester. That is, through personal accounts by Copland himself along with accounts of Copland’s friends and acquaintances, the authors manage to paint an accurate and interesting picture detailing the life of the great composer. When combined, the two books recount Copland’s entire life, dividing it into two periods for the purpose of easier organization and reading.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Copland was born in New York City in 1900. Copland had a large and loving family in New York. His childhood was comfortable, as his father owned a department store where Copland worked for much of his young life. Copland’s mother is described by the composer as "affectionate and a very nice mother to have" (pp. 18) Copland showed an early interest in music, and by the age of eleven, he had surpassed the knowledge of his older sister in the ways of the piano. As a child, he had taken lessons from his sister, but by eleven, he felt that he needed to consult an outside source in order to learn more.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the age of eighteen, Copland graduated from high school. He pursued his interest in music and began to search for a teacher who could teach him musical harmony. Copland’s piano teacher suggested that he study under Rubin Goldmark who had a studio in Manhattan. Copland found Goldmark to be a very effective teacher. However, Copland and his piano teacher decided to part ways so that Copland could expand his horizons. Under Goldmark, Copland learned very effective methods of composition, but sometimes felt bogged down. Goldmark did not approve of some of Copland’s interest in the more modern musical works, and Copland found this frustrating. After composing a number of "Sonata-form" musical pieces with Goldmark, Copland decided he needed a change of scenery. In 1921, Copland decided to study in France. Even as Copland left his old teacher, Goldmark stressed his traditional ideals. Before Copland’s departure, Goldmark wrote: "I hope you will ma ke more progress in the Sonata form†¦Even if you should fall into the hands of some radicals."(pp. 35)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In France, Copland found a new teacher in Nadia Boulanger.

Self-Image and Consumer Behavior

Article Review: Self-Image and Consumer Behavior: How Sacrosanct Self-Beliefs Sway Preferences in the Marketplace Written by: David Dunning In this article, David Dunning questions whether or not beliefs, wants, and needs are the keys to decision making in a consumer’s mind. He believes in a decision making technique called belief harmonization. With this, Dunning means that in order to reach a decision , it may require arranging and revising one’s beliefs, needs, and preferences into a network of cognition that produces little tension among its elements. He states that this allows for two major influences on decision making.The first influence is if people hold a bias to favor one decision over another, then that will alter how they perceive the product. They will solely make a decision on that bias and keep to it. In our book, it explains this with brand equity. The outcome shows that a consumer will decide based on the belief that this brand is better than all of the others and not think twice to purchase. The second influence involves the beliefs that the consumer want to maintain, called sacrosanct beliefs. This is one claiming that the self is a moral, lovable, and capable individual.Dunning states that many decisions in the consumer world are based on this belief of self-image, even when the decision at hand has no relevance to the self. We buy to highlight or hide aspects of our self. Evidence for Decision Making as Belief Harmonization There is much evidence that suggest that judgment and decision making, including consumer behavior decision making, is known to be belief harmonization. Dunning stated that through the 1940s and 1960s, people depended on the consistency theory, balance theory, and the cognitive dissonance theory.However, it has been known that belief and other connections are applied as well. This would be referred to as connectionist modeling or parallel-constraint satisfaction. He gives a certain example of a young woman buying a car and the positive and negative factors based on buying this car. There can be some direct and indirect contradictions in the harmonization process. What people do is revise what they believe in and make connections with the decision. It may lead towards the negative factors or the positive factors in this decision.Dunning states that the best decisions should be based on the beliefs that the person possesses and will be the best indicator for it. Beliefs are equally able to influence and be influenced by other beliefs. The Influence of Decision Outcomes on Perceptions of â€Å"Input† Variables Emerging evidence demonstrates just how easily the causality in decision making can run in reverse. A preliminary opinion leaning toward one conclusion tends to alter how people evaluate evidence in decision making. This also is a part of product choice as well.The Influence of Logically Irrelevant â€Å"Outside Beliefs† Any belief can bias people to initially favor o ne over another. These beliefs are called â€Å"outside† beliefs and tend to be irrelevant when it comes to the decision making process. Dunning talks about how a juror decides on whether or not someone should be sued for posting negative comments on the internet. They looked at both positive and negative sides of the defendant and never based their decision on if the defendant was a nice guy or not. Work in the consumer world has also found similar bias due to outside beliefs.Evidence for Sacrosanct Beliefs about the Self People commonly approach every decision with the belief that their decision takes precedence and that they are honorable individuals. They want their decisions to be positive so that their self-image is positive. In class, we learned about impression management, which means that we work to â€Å"manage† what others think of us. This is a factor in our self-image. Evidence for Positive Self-Beliefs Researchers have showed that people have upbeat self- images, even to an unrealistic degree.Our psychological process that might help leave people with flattering views is a constant engagement in belief harmonization anchored on a self-belief. Research on self-evaluation also shows what type of moves or decisions people make for a positive self-image. This goes in hand with the ideal self portrayal and our concept of what we would like to be. With consumers, they easily adapt to certain products to help us reach our ideal self and have a positive outcome in our beliefs. Evidence for Belief Harmonization with Positive Self-BeliefsBeliefs about the social world are harmonized with flattering self-views. The judgment of people will affirm the positive impression of self. Culture is a big factor in the consumer world, and that is where the beliefs and self-image become intertwined together. In our book, it talks about how in some cultures, women are supposed to foster harmonious relationships and men are supposed to be assertive and have certain skills. These beliefs make the positive self-image in the culture that the male and female are in. Definitions of Social Traits and JudgmentThere are many social traits out in the consumer world today. The article talks about how people tend to emphasize specific attributes and talents that they have and de-emphasize those they do not. These beliefs guide people’s judgments. They align their attribution for success and failure to affirm about the self and the image it portrays. Dunning states that at times a behavior is clearly an underlying trait. People tend to adopt performance standards that place their own competence and character in a good light. Evidence for Belief Harmonization in ChoiceRecent developments in the consumer psychology literature provide strong hints that self-image motives may influence decision making in the marketplace. Here are some points that play an important role by self-image in decision making. * Self-Signaling: this is the notion that people reach their decisions with an eye toward bolstering their self-images is similar to another idea emerging from work in decision making and choice. This is to signal the type of person they are. This explains behavior that remains curious and has been an explanation for people’s behavior.Shafir and Tversky conducted this behavior in the Newcomb problem, where it showed that a participant in the experiment picked an economically inferior option to another option. * Endowment Effects: People place more value on an object once they own in. Handing a coffee mug to a college student causes them to more than double what the mug is really worth. Once products are associated with people, it confirms the positive impressions of that person and becomes valuable for them to have. * Compensation Effects: People buy to compensate for perceived deficits. For example, men buy toupees to make up for hair loss.People buy products to cover their shortcomings for others not to see. * Affi rmation Effects: People express ideas that they are invulnerable to risk. Having self-esteem may prompt people to make choices with less concern. * Licensing Effects: Once people have gained solid evidence that they possess some sacrosanct trait, they act in a way that could potentially violate that they have that trait. This arises in consumer choice many times. Future Questions Dunning focuses on one specific sacrosanct belief, which is that the self is a lovable and capable person.He feels as though there could be other beliefs that exist as well. People possess personal self-esteem but also can possess collective self-esteem. This very much indeed influences people’s decisions and behavior in the marketplace. Also, beliefs that people seek might involve specific ones or rather a more overall general one about the self as a whole. Willer studies on masculinity suggested that people bolster specific self-values. Also, many suggest that people are not as concerned with speci fic self-views as they are worried over a general sense of self-worth. Automatic versus Deliberative Nature of Self-Image MotivesAnother issue would be whether the impact of self-based sacrosanct beliefs is deliberative or automatic in nature. Dunning believes that the impact of self-beliefs might be more automatic in nature. He argues that the term automatic can be the case that the process of affirming favorable self-beliefs is beyond people’s control. Also that is may be the case that this process occurs below people’s awareness; they may lack any insight that their choices are influenced by concerns over the self. However, people’s preferences can impose its influence below a person’s awareness.The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem For sacrosanct beliefs about the self to influence consumer psychology, people must presumably have those sacrosanct beliefs, and people with low self-esteem may not have positive views to maintain. In the consumer realm, one could ask whether low self-esteem people will work as energetically as their high self-esteem peers harmonize consumer decisions with positive views of self. The Moderating Role of Culture/Implications of Marketing As I discussed in this paper earlier, culture is another condition with how consumers make decisions.People in North America and Western Europe work to bolster their self-esteem. In the West, people seem more concerned with individuality and in the East; they focus on the collective self. Self-Image concerns may also carry implications for effective marketing according to Dunning. People tend to state that they are motivated to do good work in their job for reasons like personal growth, whereas other people are more motivated by money. That is how it works with decisions in consumer buying. People are influenced by social status.This article suggests that marketers should be mindful of the motivations that people are likely to cite as prime considerations for their purcha ses. In conclusion, the article is about how consumer behavior is acted and what it is based upon. There are many different factors that the author speaks about in this article. Self-Esteem and Culture are two main pieces of the puzzle when it comes to how consumers react to certain products. In the marketing world, we marketers have to look at these factors and how much insight it will provide us when we are trying to get into the minds of our consumers.Dunning makes very interesting arguments of how we cannot look at the picture as a whole, but yet as different segments of ourselves that all tie together with the decision making process. I thought this was a very interesting article because it shows how experiments and studies were done to prove that these are main factors with consumer behavior. It also showed me how we basically become the product and shine through the product for our own self-image. It could be even with becoming part of a group that reflects your personality, or just for your individual traits themselves.

Agricultural Change And Intensification In Britain Environmental Sciences Essay

Throughout the past century, the British agricultural system has experienced considerable changes in footings of direction patterns and attitudes to environmental protection. The most dramatic and influential alterations occurred in the late fortiess, with post-war mechanization. Following World War 2, concerns over nutrient security grew, motivating the Government to promote increased nutrient production. Emphasis was placed upon the usage of modern and intensive agricultural patterns to increase end product, ensuing in enhanced mechanization, enlargement and intensification ( Dobbs and Pretty, 2004 ) . However, a move to big scale agri-business resulted in profound and inauspicious effects on rural biodiversity and farming area home grounds with the over-exploitation of their valuable resources. Habitats underwent considerable debasement, peculiarly with hedge remotion to suit larger machinery, destructing extremely good nutrient beginnings and engendering home grounds for wildlife. Additionally, technological promotions led to the widespread execution of man-made chemical weedkillers and pesticides to increase outputs, which resulted in terrible damaging effects to flora, zoologies and H2O quality. Furthermore, the debut of larger and more sophisticated agricultural machinery and cultivated land procedures resulted in significant decreases to dirty quality, through compression and eroding. With 75 % of UK land classed as agricultural, cumulatively these damaging effects sparked major concern ( Montemayor et al. , 2010 ) .1.2 The Rise of Modern EnvironmentalismAs a consequence of the widespread debasement of agricultural ecosystems during the post-war period, the coming of modern environmentalism in the 1970s and 1980s focussed consciousness on the importance of extenuating the inauspicious impacts of agricultural intensification. The publication of Rachel Carson ‘s ‘Silent Spring ‘ in 1962 is thought to hold been a major landmark in the outgro wth of environmental consciousness ( Dunlap, 2008 ) . Carson highlighted the considerable damaging side-effects of pesticide use, peculiarly DDT. Concern was sparked amongst ecologists over the possible for bioaccumulation of DDT within ecosystems and its harmful generative impacts, peculiarly for birds. Doctors and the general population besides feared the harmful effects of indiscriminate DDT usage, due to toxicity and carcinogenic effects ( Carson, 1962 ) . Therefore, the publication of ‘Silent Spring ‘ instigated the modern environmental motion, and people became more cognizant of the jobs faced within the agricultural sector.1.3 The Common Agricultural PolicyThe European Union Common Agricultural Policy ( CAP ) provides agricultural subsidies to member provinces in order to advance sustainable agribusiness ( European Commission, 2010 ) . The CAP is made up of 2 pillars ; pillar 1 encompasses market support steps and direct payments for run intoing cross-compliance c riterions chiefly for the environment, nutrient safety and animate being public assistance. Pillar 2 nevertheless is focussed upon rural development programmes ( House of Lords, 2005 ) . The early CAP of the 1950s was focussed upon pillar 1 steps, for increasing autonomy through the proviso of inducements to husbandmans in order to promote greater productiveness. However, with the rise of modern environmentalism, the agricultural accent shifted towards environmental sustainability, doing a bifurcation of the function of land directors with the demand to non merely supply agricultural efficiency, but besides to integrate environmental protection ( ref ) . With increasing accent on environmental saving, and a realization of the potency of agro-ecological procedures, the United Kingdom introduced the first agri-environmental strategy in 1987, named the Environmentally Sensitive Areas strategy ( ESA ) . This was superseded by the Countryside Stewardship Scheme ( CSS ) in 1991 which was a consequence of the major CAP reforms of the 1990s, aimed at supplying for the altering demands of both the agricultural sector and the wider community ( Natural England ) . Figure 1.1 clearly illustrates the alterations to UK agri-environment strategies which took topographic point between 1973 and 2000, foregrounding the important changes to agricultural precede nces. Figure 1.1: Changes in UK agri-environment strategy subsidies from 1973 – 2000 ( beginning: Monetary value, 2003, p.122 ) . Degree centigrades: UsersEmPicturesimg010.jpg Since so, the demand to extenuate clime alteration has been progressively recognised, in order to restrict dirt and H2O debasement and to control the loss of biodiversity. Whilst direct pillar 1 subsidy payments still exist under the Single Farm Payment Scheme, accent has been shifted to pillar 2 policies ; redesigned to non merely crippled environmental harm, but heighten the agricultural landscape through the publicity of more sustainable agriculture patterns that will make a natural environment that is better suited to defy the impacts of climatic alteration.1.4 Environmental StewardshipThe Environmental Stewardship ( ES ) strategy was introduced in 2005, as a agency to counterbalance husbandmans for supplying specific environmental criterions that go beyond the cross-compliance standard of the CAP. ES strategies are administered for the authorities ‘s Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) by Natural England, and are a cardinal constituent of the Europe an Union funded Rural Development Programme for England 2007-2013, conveying together the old CSS and ESA strategies ( Natural England ) . As keepers and stewards of the rural landscape, husbandmans have an intuitive ethical duty to continue and enrich farming area ecosystems ; nevertheless this is frequently non realistic in footings of fiscal viability ( ref ) . With the major challenges posed by clime alteration, and subsequent nutrient security issues, it has become progressively of import that support and counsel is made available for husbandmans and land directors. This enables the bringing of effectual environmental protection, whilst keeping premier agricultural land, to heighten the part of agribusiness to climate alteration extenuation through diminishing nursery gas emanations and bettering dirt C segregation ( Natural England ) . Environmental Stewardship strategies are presently the primary beginning of pecuniary inducements, dwelling of Entry Level Stewardship ( ELS ) , Higher Level Stewardship ( HLS ) , Organic Entry Level Stewardship ( OELS ) and Uplands Entry Level Stewardship ( UELS ) . It is recognised that little graduated table husbandmans must stay the focal point of such enterprises, explicating the demand for 4 different multi-objective strategies. The chief aims of Environmental Stewardship are to: preserve biodiversity maintain and enhance landscape quality protect the historic environment promote public apprehension and entree protect natural dirt and H2O resources ( Natural England, 2010 ) ELS enchiridion ) This survey will concentrate merely upon ELS and HLS ; explained in the undermentioned subdivisions.1.4.1 Entry Level StewardshipThe ELS strategy is a 5 twelvemonth understanding, open to all land directors in England, and offers a broad scope of options for simple yet effectual environmental direction. 30 points per hectare must be chosen from over 50 options, in order to have a payment of & A ; lb ; 30 per hectare per twelvemonth. Management options include the usage of buffer strips, assorted stocking, screen harvests, harvest rotary motion and watercourse fence ( Natural England ELS enchiridion ) . ELS is a wide and shallow, high uptake attack with environmental demands that are comparatively easy to run into without significantly changing direction patterns.1.4.2 Higher Degree StewardshipHLS normally builds upon ELS, OELS or UELS, offering a higher tiered direction strategy. It is more complex and demanding, necessitating well greater input, which is reflected in the higher comp ensation payments for direction input and capital plants. Emphasis is placed upon specialized land direction to supply important environmental addition in high precedence countries. HLS understandings last for 10 old ages, and are a competitory and discretional, narrow and deep attack with a lower application success rate. In add-on to the sweetening of ELS aims, HLS provides chances for bettering public entree and carry oning educational visits ( Natural England: HLS handbook 2010 ) .1.5 PurposesThis research undertaking aims to supply an original penetration into the effectivity of the Environmental Stewardship strategy. While other surveies focus upon the motivations of participants and the obstructions that limit engagement, this probe will turn to an underexplored, yet extremely relevant subject which relates non merely to agricultural patterns, but to wider environmental and anthropogenetic clime alteration concerns that remain at the head of current arguments.1.6 Research Que stionsThis probe aims to specifically turn to the undermentioned research inquiries: Are the ecological benefits to vegetations and zoologies well better under the Higher Level Stewardship Scheme when compared to the Entry Level Stewardship Scheme? Is there a pronounced sweetening of flora species richness under HLS when compared to ELS? Is H2O quality and therefore aquatic species diverseness enhanced under HLS? Does macrolepidoptera copiousness and composing exhibit significant sweetening under higher tiered direction schemes? Are dirt features significantly altered under different direction grades? 2. Overall, is Environmental Stewardship an effectual manner to pull off the rural landscape, and can the high fiscal input required be considered cost effectual in footings of the environmental return?1.7 AimsTo ease the scrutiny of the purposes and research inquiries the undermentioned aims will be used: 1. Identify 4 appropriate survey sites ; 2 ELS and 2 HLS managed farms in South Devon on which the necessary research can be conducted. 2. Undertake macroinvertebrate, dirt, flora and macrolepidoptera trying at each survey site. 3. Identify all species observed and collate informations obtained from each location. 4. Process informations utilizing appropriate graphical and statistical techniques. 5. Discourse the consequences that are obtained in order to derive a reasoned and representative rating of the effectivity of the different Environmental Stewardship direction grades. In order to carry through these aims, a literature reappraisal will be undertaken to supply farther penetration into the subject, and inform the informations aggregation, analysis and treatment chapters.